From 863a5f0add804e0629b6add803438e0c0027883f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: schinz Date: Tue, 5 Aug 2003 08:40:57 +0000 Subject: - renamed tutorial.scalatex to tutorial.scala.tex --- doc/tutorial/tutorial.scala.tex | 383 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ doc/tutorial/tutorial.scalatex | 270 ---------------------------- 2 files changed, 383 insertions(+), 270 deletions(-) create mode 100644 doc/tutorial/tutorial.scala.tex delete mode 100644 doc/tutorial/tutorial.scalatex diff --git a/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scala.tex b/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scala.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..31f1c54cde --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scala.tex @@ -0,0 +1,383 @@ +%% This file really contains -*- LaTeX -*- code, to be processed by +%% the scalatex script. + +%% $Id$ + +\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article} + +\usepackage{palatino} +\usepackage{alltt} +\usepackage{xspace} +\usepackage{url} + +\newcommand{\langname}[1]{#1\xspace} + +\newcommand{\Scala}{\langname{Scala}} +\newcommand{\Java}{\langname{Java}} + +\newcommand{\toolname}[1]{\texttt{#1}\xspace} + +\newcommand{\socos}{\toolname{socos}} +\newcommand{\java}{\toolname{java}} + +\newcommand{\ident}[1]{\url{#1}\xspace} + +\begin{document} + +\title{An introduction to \Scala\\[.5em]\normalsize(for \Java programmers)} +\author{Michel Schinz} +\maketitle + +\section{Introduction} +\label{sec:introduction} + +This document gives a quick introduction to the \Scala language and +compiler. It is intended for people who have already some experience +at programming and want an overview of what they can do with \Scala. A +basic knowledge of object-oriented programming, especially in \Java, +is assumed. + +\section{A first example} +\label{sec:first-example} + +As a first example, we will use the standard \emph{Hello world} +program, which is not very fascinating but makes it easy to +demonstrate the use of the \Scala tools without knowing too much about +the language. Here is how it looks: +\begin{scalaprogram}{HelloWorld} +object HelloWorld { + def main(args: Array[String]): unit = { + System.out.println("Hello, world!"); + } +} +\end{scalaprogram} + +The structure of this program should be familiar to Java programmers: +it consists of one method called \ident{main} which takes the command +line arguments, an array of strings, as parameter; the body of this +method consists of a single call to the \ident{println} method of the +object representing the standard output, with the friendly greeting as +argument. The \ident{main} method is declared as returning a value of +type \ident{unit}, which for now can be seen as similar to \java's +\ident{void} type. + +What should be less familiar to Java programmers is the \ident{object} +declaration containing the \ident{main} method. Such a declaration +introduces what is commonly known as a \emph{singleton object}, that +is a class with a single instance. The declaration above thus declares +both a class called \ident{HelloWorld} and an instance of that class, +also called \ident{HelloWorld}. This instance is created lazily, the +first time it is used. + +The astute reader might also have noticed that the \ident{main} method +is not declared as \ident{static} here. This is because static members +(methods or fields) do not exist in \Scala. Rather than define static +members, the \Scala programmer declares these members in singleton +objects. + +\subsection{Compiling the example} +\label{sec:compiling-example} + +To compile the example, we need to use \socos, the \Scala compiler. +\socos works like most compilers: it takes a source file as argument, +maybe some options, and produces one or several object files. The +object files it produces are standard \Java class files. + +If we save the above program in a file called +\ident{HelloWorld.scala}, we can compile it by issuing the following +command (the greater-than sign `\verb|>|' represents the shell prompt +and should not be typed): +\begin{verbatim} +> socos HelloWorld.scala +\end{verbatim} +This will generate a few class files in the current directory, one of +which called \ident{HelloWorld.class}. This file contains a class +which can be directly executed using the \java command, as will be +seen in the following section. + +\subsection{Running the example} +\label{sec:running-example} + +Once compiled, a \Scala program can be run like a \Java program, using +the \java command. However, a compiled \Scala program needs to access +some support classes at run-time, which should be available through +\Java's class path. These support classes are distributed in a JAR +file called \url{scala.jar}, which lives in the directory +\url{SCALA_HOME/lib}. Here \url{SCALA_HOME} is a place-holder for the +name of the directory where the \Scala distribution was installed. + +The example above can therefore be executed using the command below, +if we assume that the \Scala distribution was installed in +\url{/usr/local}: +\begin{verbatim} +> java -classpath /usr/local/lib/scala.jar:. HelloWorld +\end{verbatim} +\scalaprogramoutput{HelloWorld} + +\section{Interaction with Java} +\label{sec:inter-with-java} + +One of the strength of \Scala is that it makes it very easy to +interact with \Java code. Actually, the example of the previous +section showed this: to print the message on screen, we simply used a +call to \Java's \ident{println} method on the (\Java) object +\ident{System.out}. + +All \Java code is accessible as easily from \Scala. Of course, it is +sometimes necessary to import classes, as one does in \Java, in order +to be able to use them. All classes in the \ident{java.lang} packages +are imported by default, others need to be imported explicitly. + +Let's look at another example to see this. The aim of this example is +to compute and print the factorial of 100 using \Java big integers +(i.e. the class \ident{java.math.BigInteger}), since the result does +not fit in a \Java integer. This program looks like this: +\begin{scalaprogram}{BigFactorial} +object BigFactorial { + import java.math.BigInteger, BigInteger._; + + def fact(x: BigInteger): BigInteger = + if (x == ZERO) ONE + else x multiply fact(x subtract ONE); + + def main(args: Array[String]): unit = + System.out.println("fact(100) = " + + fact(new BigInteger("100"))); +} +\end{scalaprogram} + +\Scala's \ident{import} statement looks very similar to \Java's +equivalent, but an important difference appears here: to import all +the names of a package or class, one uses the underscore (\verb|_|) +character instead of the asterisk (\verb|*|). This is due to the fact +that, as we will see later, the asterisk is actually a valid \Scala +identifier. + +The \ident{import} statement above therefore starts by importing the +class \ident{java.math.BigInteger}, and then all the names it +contains. This makes the static fields \ident{ZERO} and \ident{ONE} +directly visible. + +The \ident{fact} method also shows some characteristics of \Scala's +syntax. The first one is that the method body does not have to be +surrounded by curly braces if it consists of a single expression. +The second one is that methods taking one argument can be used with an +infix syntax. That is, the expression +\begin{verbatim} +x subtract ONE +\end{verbatim} +is just another, slightly less verbose way of writing the expression +\begin{verbatim} +x.subtract(ONE) +\end{verbatim} +This might seem like a minor syntactic detail, but it has important +consequences, one of which will be explored in the next section. + +To conclude this section about integration with \Java, it should be +noted that it is also possible to inherit from \Java classes and +implement \Java interfaces directly in \Scala. + +\section{Everything is an object} +\label{sec:everything-an-object} + +\Scala is a pure object-oriented language in the sense that +\emph{everything} is an object, including numbers or functions. It +differs from \Java in that respect, since \Java distinguishes numeric +types from objects, and does not enable one to manipulate functions as +values. + +\subsection{Numbers are objects} +\label{sec:numbers-are-objects} + +Since numbers are objects, they also have methods. And in fact, an +arithmetic expression like the following: +\begin{verbatim} +1 + 2 * 3 / x +\end{verbatim} +consists exclusively of method calls, because it is equivalent to the +following expression, as we saw in the previous section: +\begin{verbatim} +1.+(2.*(3./(x))) +\end{verbatim} +This also means that \ident{+}, \ident{*}, etc. are legal identifiers +in \Scala. + +\subsection{Functions are objects} +\label{sec:funct-are-objects} + +Perhaps more surprising for the \Java programmer, functions are also +objects in \Scala. It is therefore possible to pass functions as +arguments, to store them in variables, and to return them from other +functions. This ability to manipulate functions as values is one of +the cornerstone of a very interesting programming paradigm called +\emph{functional programming}. + +As a very simple example of why it can be useful to use functions as +values, let's consider a timer function whose aim is to perform some +action every second. How do we pass it the action to perform? Quite +logically, as a function. This very simple kind of function passing +should be familiar to many programmers: it is often used in +user-interface code, to register call-back functions which get called +when some event occurs. + +In the following program, the timer function is called +\ident{oncePerSecond}, and it gets a call-back function as argument. +The type of this function is written \verb|() => unit| and is the type +of all functions which have no arguments and return a value of type +\ident{unit}. The main function of this program simply calls this +timer function with a call-back which prints a sentence on the +terminal. In other words, this program endlessly prints the sentence +\emph{time flies like an arrow} every second. + +\begin{scalaprogram}{Timer} +object Timer { + def oncePerSecond(callback: () => unit): unit = + while (true) { callback(); Thread sleep 1000 }; + + def timeFlies(): unit = + System.out.println("time flies like an arrow..."); + + def main(args: Array[String]): unit = + oncePerSecond(timeFlies); +} +\end{scalaprogram} + +\subsubsection{Anonymous functions} +\label{sec:anonymous-functions} + +While this program is easy to understand, it can be refined a bit. +First of all, notice that the function \ident{timeFlies} is only +defined in order to be passed later to the \ident{oncePerSecond} +function. Having to give a name to that function, which is only used +once, might seem unnecessary, and it would in fact be nice to be able +to construct this function just as it is passed to +\ident{oncePerSecond}. This is possible in \Scala using +\emph{anonymous functions}, which are exactly that: functions without +a name. The revised version of our timer program using an anonymous +function instead of \ident{timeFlies} looks like that: +\begin{scalaprogram}{TimerAnonymous} +object TimerAnonymous { + def oncePerSecond(callback: () => unit): unit = + while (true) { callback(); Thread sleep 1000 }; + + def main(args: Array[String]): unit = + oncePerSecond(() => + System.out.println("time flies like an arrow...")); +} +\end{scalaprogram} +The presence of an anonymous function in this example is revealed by +the right arrow `\verb|=>|' which separates the function's argument +list from its body. In this example, the argument list is empty, as +witnessed by the empty pair of parenthesis on the left of the arrow. +The body of the function is the same as the one of \ident{timeFlies} +above. + +% TODO fonctions avec environnement + +\section{Classes} +\label{sec:classes} + +As we have seen above, \Scala is an object-oriented language, and as +such it has a concept of class.\footnote{For the sake of completeness, + it should be noted that some object-oriented languages do not have + the concept of class, but \Scala is not one of them.} +Classes in \Scala are declared using a syntax which is close to +\Java's syntax. One important difference is that classes in \Scala can +have parameters. This is illustrated in the following definition of +complex numbers. +\begin{scalaprogram}{Complex} +class Complex(real: double, imaginary: double) { + def re() = real; + def im() = imaginary; +} +\end{scalaprogram} +This complex class takes two arguments, which are the real and +imaginary part of the complex. It then defines two methods, called +\ident{re} and \ident{im} which give access to these two parts. + +It should be noted that the return type of these two methods is not +given explicitly. It will be inferred automatically by the compiler, +which looks at the right-hand side of these methods and deduces that +both return a value of type \ident{double}. + +The compiler is not always able to infer types like it does here, and +there is unfortunately no simple rule to know exactly when it will be, +and when not. In practice, this is usually not a problem since the +compiler complains when it is not able to infer a type which was not +given explicitly. As a simple rule, beginner \Scala programmers +should try to omit type declarations which seem superfluous to them, +because they are easily deduced from the context, and see whether the +compiler agrees with them. After some time, they should get a good +feeling about when to omit types, and when to specify them +explicitly. + +\subsection{Methods without arguments} +\label{sec:meth-wo-args} + +A small problem of the methods \ident{re} and \ident{im} is that, in +order to call them, one has to put an empty pair of parenthesis after +their name, as the following example shows: +\begin{alltt} +val c = new Complex(1.2, 3.4); +System.out.println("imaginary part: " + \underline{c.im()}); +\end{alltt} +It would be nicer to be able to access the real and imaginary parts +like if they were fields, without putting the empty pair of +parenthesis. This is perfectly doable in \Scala, simply by defining +the methods as methods \emph{without arguments}. These differ from +methods with zero arguments in that they don't have parenthesis after +their name, neither in their definition nor in their use. Our +\ident{Complex} class can be rewritten as follows: +\begin{scalaprogram}{Complex2} +class Complex(real: double, imaginary: double) { + def re = real; + def im = imaginary; +} +\end{scalaprogram} + +\subsection{Inheritance and overriding} +\label{sec:inheritance} + +All classes in \Scala inherit from a super-class. When no super-class +is specified, as in the \ident{Complex} example of previous section, +\ident{scala.Object} is implicitly used. + +It is possible to override methods inherited from a super-class in +\Scala. It is however mandatory to explicitly specify that a method +overrides another one using the \ident{override} modifier, in order to +avoid accidental overriding. As an example, our \ident{Complex} class +can be augmented with a redefinition of the \ident{toString} method +inherited from \ident{Object}. +\begin{scalaprogram}{Complex3} +class Complex(real: double, imaginary: double) { + def re = real; + def im = imaginary; + override def toString() = + "" + re + (if (im < 0) "-" else "+") + im + "i"; +} +\end{scalaprogram} + +\section{Mixins} +\label{sec:mixins} + +Apart from inheriting code from a super-class, a \Scala class can also +import code from one or several \emph{mixins}. + +\section{Case classes and pattern matching} +\label{sec:case-classes-pattern} + + +\section{Genericity} +\label{sec:genericity} + + + +\section{Conclusion} +\label{sec:conclusion} + +This document gave a quick overview of the \Scala language and +presented some basic examples. The interested reader can go on by +reading the companion document \textit{Scala by example\/} and consult +the \textit{Scala reference\/} when needed. + +\end{document} diff --git a/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scalatex b/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scalatex deleted file mode 100644 index c27c6db37e..0000000000 --- a/doc/tutorial/tutorial.scalatex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,270 +0,0 @@ -%% This file really contains -*- LaTeX -*- code, to be processed by -%% the scalatex script. - -%% $Id$ - -\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article} - -\usepackage{palatino} -\usepackage{xspace} -\usepackage{url} - -\newcommand{\langname}[1]{\textsf{#1}\xspace} - -\newcommand{\Scala}{\langname{Scala}} -\newcommand{\Java}{\langname{Java}} - -\newcommand{\toolname}[1]{\texttt{#1}\xspace} - -\newcommand{\socos}{\toolname{socos}} -\newcommand{\java}{\toolname{java}} - -\newcommand{\ident}[1]{\url{#1}\xspace} - -\begin{document} - -\title{An introduction to \Scala\\[.5em]\normalsize(for \Java programmers)} -\author{Michel Schinz} -\maketitle - -\section{Introduction} -\label{sec:introduction} - -This document gives a quick introduction to the \Scala language and -compiler. It is intended for people who have already some experience -at programming and want an overview of what they can do with \Scala. A -basic knowledge of object-oriented programming, especially in \Java, -is assumed. - -\section{A first example} -\label{sec:first-example} - -As a first example, we will use the standard \emph{Hello world} -program, which is not very fascinating but makes it easy to -demonstrate the use of the \Scala tools without knowing too much about -the language. Here is how it looks: -\begin{scalaprogram}{HelloWorld} -object HelloWorld { - def main(args: Array[String]): unit = { - System.out.println("Hello, world!"); - } -} -\end{scalaprogram} - -The structure of this program should be familiar to Java programmers: -it consists of one method called \ident{main} which takes the command -line arguments, an array of strings, as parameter; the body of this -method consists of a single call to the \ident{println} method of the -object representing the standard output, with the friendly greeting as -argument. The \ident{main} method is declared as returning a value of -type \ident{unit}, which for now can be seen as similar to \java's -\ident{void} type. - -What should be less familiar to Java programmers is the \ident{object} -declaration containing the \ident{main} method. Such a declaration -introduces what is commonly known as a \emph{singleton object}, that -is a class with a single instance. The declaration above thus declares -both a class called \ident{HelloWorld} and an instance of that class, -also called \ident{HelloWorld}. This instance is created lazily, the -first time it is used. - -The astute reader might also have noticed that the \ident{main} method -is not declared as \ident{static} here. This is because static members -(methods or fields) do not exist in \Scala. Rather than define static -members, the \Scala programmer declares these members in singleton -objects. - -\subsection{Compiling the example} -\label{sec:compiling-example} - -To compile the example, we need to use \socos, the \Scala compiler. -\socos works like most compilers: it takes a source file as argument, -maybe some options, and produces one or several object files. The -object files it produces are standard \Java class files. - -If we save the above program in a file called -\ident{HelloWorld.scala}, we can compile it by issuing the following -command (the greater-than sign `\verb|>|' represents the shell prompt -and should not be typed): -\begin{verbatim} -> socos HelloWorld.scala -\end{verbatim} -This will generate a few class files in the current directory, one of -which called \ident{HelloWorld.class}. This file contains a class -which can be directly executed using the \java command, as will be -seen in the following section. - -\subsection{Running the example} -\label{sec:running-example} - -Once compiled, a \Scala program can be run like a \Java program, using -the \java command. However, a compiled \Scala program needs to access -some support classes at run-time, which should be available through -\Java's class path. These support classes are distributed in a JAR -file called \url{scala.jar}, which lives in the directory -\url{SCALA_HOME/lib}. Here \url{SCALA_HOME} is a placeholder for the -name of the directory where the \Scala distribution was installed. - -The example above can therefore be executed using the command below, -if we assume that the \Scala distribution was installed in -\url{/usr/local}: -\begin{verbatim} -> java -classpath /usr/local/lib/scala.jar:. HelloWorld -\end{verbatim} -\scalaprogramoutput{HelloWorld} - -\section{Interaction with Java} -\label{sec:inter-with-java} - -One of the strength of \Scala is that it makes it very easy to -interact with \Java code. Actually, the example of the previous -section showed this: to print the message on screen, we simply used a -call to \Java's \ident{println} method on the (\Java) object -\ident{System.out}. - -All \Java code is accessible as easily from \Scala. Of course, it is -sometimes necessary to import classes, as one does in \Java, in order -to be able to use them. All classes in the \ident{java.lang} packages -are imported by default, others need to be imported explicitely. - -Let's look at another example to see this. The aim of this example is -to compute and print the factorial of 100 using \Java big integers -(i.e. the class \ident{java.math.BigInteger}), since the result does -not fit in a \Java integer. This program looks like this: -\begin{scalaprogram}{BigFactorial} -object BigFactorial { - import java.math.BigInteger, BigInteger._; - - def fact(x: BigInteger): BigInteger = - if (x == ZERO) ONE - else x multiply fact(x subtract ONE); - - def main(args: Array[String]): unit = - System.out.println("fact(100) = " - + fact(new BigInteger("100"))); -} -\end{scalaprogram} - -\Scala's \ident{import} statement looks very similar to \Java's -equivalent, but an important difference appears here: to import all -the names of a package or class, one uses the underscore (\verb|_|) -character instead of the asterisk (\verb|*|). This is due to the fact -that, as we will see later, the asterisk is actually a valid \Scala -identifier. - -The \ident{import} statement above therefore starts by importing the -class \ident{java.math.BigInteger}, and then all the names it -contains. This makes the static fields \ident{ZERO} and \ident{ONE} -directly visible. - -The \ident{fact} method also shows some characteristics of \Scala's -syntax. The first one is that the method body does not have to be -surrounded by curly braces if it consists of a single expression. -The second one is that methods taking one argument can be used with an -infix syntax. That is, the expression -\begin{verbatim} -x subtract ONE -\end{verbatim} -is just another, slightly less verbose way of writing the expression -\begin{verbatim} -x.subtract(ONE) -\end{verbatim} -This might seem like a minor syntactic detail, but it has important -consequences, one of which will be explored in the next section. - -To conclude this section about integration with \Java, it should be -noted that it is also possible to inherit from \Java classes and -implement \Java interfaces directly in \Scala. - -\section{Everything is an object} -\label{sec:everything-an-object} - -\Scala is a pure object-oriented language in the sense that -\emph{everything} is an object, including numbers or functions. It -differs from \Java in that respect, since \Java distinguishes numeric -types from objects, and does not enable one to manipulate functions as -values. - -\subsection{Numbers are objects} -\label{sec:numbers-are-objects} - -Since numbers are objects, they also have methods. And in fact, an -arithmetic expression like the following: -\begin{verbatim} -1 + 2 * 3 / x -\end{verbatim} -consists exclusively of method calls, because it is equivalent to the -following expression, as we saw in the previous section: -\begin{verbatim} -1.+(2.*(3./(x))) -\end{verbatim} -This also means that \ident{+}, \ident{*}, etc. are legal identifiers -in \Scala. - -\subsection{Functions are objects} -\label{sec:funct-are-objects} - -Perhaps more surprising for the \Java programmer, functions are also -objects in \Scala. It is therefore possible to pass functions as -arguments, to store them in variables, and to return them from other -functions. This ability to manipulate functions as values is one of -the cornerstone of a very interesting programming paradigm called -\emph{functional programming}. - -As a very simple example of why it can be useful to use functions as -values, let's consider a timer function whose aim is to perform some -action every second. How do we pass it the action to perform? Quite -logically, as a function. This very simple kind of function passing -should be familiar to many programmers: it is often used in -user-interface code, to register call-back functions which get called -when some event occurs. - -In the following program, the timer function is called -\ident{oncePerSecond}, and it gets a call-back function as argument. -The type of this function is written \ident{() => unit} and is the -type of all functions which have no arguments and return a value of -type \ident{unit}. The main function of this program simply calls this -timer function with a call-back whose only action is to print a -sentence on the terminal. In other words, this program endlessly -prints the sentence \emph{time flies like an arrow} every second. - -\begin{scalaprogram}{Timer} -object Timer { - def oncePerSecond(callback: () => unit): unit = - while (true) { callback(); Thread sleep 1000 }; - - def timeFlies(): unit = - System.out.println("time flies like an arrow..."); - - def main(args: Array[String]): unit = - oncePerSecond(timeFlies); -} -\end{scalaprogram} - -% TODO fonctions anonymes -% TODO fonctions avec environnement - -\section{Classes} -\label{sec:classes} - -\section{Mixins} -\label{sec:mixins} - -\section{Case classes and pattern matching} -\label{sec:case-classes-pattern} - - -\section{Genericity} -\label{sec:genericity} - - - -\section{Conclusion} -\label{sec:conclusion} - -This document gave a quick overview of the \Scala language and -presented some basic examples. The interested reader can go on by -reading the companion document \textit{Scala by example\/} and consult -the \textit{Scala reference\/} when needed. - -\end{document} -- cgit v1.2.3