---
title: Types
layout: default
chapter: 3
---

# Types

```ebnf
  Type              ::=  FunctionArgTypes ‘=>’ Type
                      |  InfixType [ExistentialClause]
  FunctionArgTypes  ::=  InfixType
                      |  ‘(’ [ ParamType {‘,’ ParamType } ] ‘)’
  ExistentialClause ::=  ‘forSome’ ‘{’ ExistentialDcl
                             {semi ExistentialDcl} ‘}’
  ExistentialDcl    ::=  ‘type’ TypeDcl
                      |  ‘val’ ValDcl
  InfixType         ::=  CompoundType {id [nl] CompoundType}
  CompoundType      ::=  AnnotType {‘with’ AnnotType} [Refinement]
                      |  Refinement
  AnnotType         ::=  SimpleType {Annotation}
  SimpleType        ::=  SimpleType TypeArgs
                      |  SimpleType ‘#’ id
                      |  StableId
                      |  Path ‘.’ ‘type’
                      |  ‘(’ Types ‘)’
  TypeArgs          ::=  ‘[’ Types ‘]’
  Types             ::=  Type {‘,’ Type}
```

We distinguish between first-order types and type constructors, which
take type parameters and yield types. A subset of first-order types
called _value types_ represents sets of (first-class) values.
Value types are either _concrete_ or _abstract_.

Every concrete value type can be represented as a _class type_, i.e. a
[type designator](#type-designators) that refers to a
[class or a trait](05-classes-and-objects.html#class-definitions) [^1], or as a
[compound type](#compound-types) representing an
intersection of types, possibly with a [refinement](#compound-types)
that further constrains the types of its members.
<!--
A shorthand exists for denoting [function types](#function-types)
-->
Abstract value types are introduced by [type parameters](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#type-parameters)
and [abstract type bindings](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#type-declarations-and-type-aliases).
Parentheses in types can be used for grouping.

[^1]: We assume that objects and packages also implicitly
      define a class (of the same name as the object or package, but
      inaccessible to user programs).

Non-value types capture properties of identifiers that
[are not values](#non-value-types). For example, a
[type constructor](#type-constructors) does not directly specify a type of
values. However, when a type constructor is applied to the correct type
arguments, it yields a first-order type, which may be a value type.

Non-value types are expressed indirectly in Scala. E.g., a method type is
described by writing down a method signature, which in itself is not a real
type, although it  gives rise to a corresponding [method type](#method-types).
Type constructors are another example, as one can write
`type Swap[m[_, _], a,b] = m[b, a]`, but there is no syntax to write
the corresponding anonymous type function directly.

## Paths

```ebnf
Path            ::=  StableId
                  |  [id ‘.’] this
StableId        ::=  id
                  |  Path ‘.’ id
                  |  [id ‘.’] ‘super’ [ClassQualifier] ‘.’ id
ClassQualifier  ::= ‘[’ id ‘]’
```

Paths are not types themselves, but they can be a part of named types
and in that function form a central role in Scala's type system.

A path is one of the following.

- The empty path ε (which cannot be written explicitly in user programs).
- $C.$`this`, where $C$ references a class.
  The path `this` is taken as a shorthand for $C.$`this` where
  $C$ is the name of the class directly enclosing the reference.
- $p.x$ where $p$ is a path and $x$ is a stable member of $p$.
  _Stable members_ are packages or members introduced by object definitions or
  by value definitions of [non-volatile types](#volatile-types).
- $C.$`super`$.x$ or $C.$`super`$[M].x$
  where $C$ references a class and $x$ references a
  stable member of the super class or designated parent class $M$ of $C$.
  The prefix `super` is taken as a shorthand for $C.$`super` where
  $C$ is the name of the class directly enclosing the reference.

A _stable identifier_ is a path which ends in an identifier.

## Value Types

Every value in Scala has a type which is of one of the following
forms.

### Singleton Types

```ebnf
SimpleType  ::=  Path ‘.’ type
```

A _singleton type_ is of the form $p.$`type`, where $p$ is a
path pointing to a value expected to [conform](06-expressions.html#expression-typing)
to `scala.AnyRef`. The type denotes the set of values
consisting of `null` and the value denoted by $p$.

A _stable type_ is either a singleton type or a type which is
declared to be a subtype of trait `scala.Singleton`.

### Type Projection

```ebnf
SimpleType  ::=  SimpleType ‘#’ id
```

A _type projection_ $T$#$x$ references the type member named
$x$ of type $T$.

<!--
The following is no longer necessary:
If $x$ references an abstract type member, then $T$ must be a
[stable type](#singleton-types)
-->

### Type Designators

```ebnf
SimpleType  ::=  StableId
```

A _type designator_ refers to a named value type. It can be simple or
qualified. All such type designators are shorthands for type projections.

Specifically, the unqualified type name $t$ where $t$ is bound in some
class, object, or package $C$ is taken as a shorthand for
$C.$`this.type#`$t$. If $t$ is
not bound in a class, object, or package, then $t$ is taken as a
shorthand for ε`.type#`$t$.

A qualified type designator has the form `p.t` where `p` is
a [path](#paths) and _t_ is a type name. Such a type designator is
equivalent to the type projection `p.type#t`.

###### Example

Some type designators and their expansions are listed below. We assume
a local type parameter $t$, a value `maintable`
with a type member `Node` and the standard class `scala.Int`,

| Designator          | Expansion                 |
|-------------------- | --------------------------|
|t                    | ε.type#t                  |
|Int                  | scala.type#Int            |
|scala.Int            | scala.type#Int            |
|data.maintable.Node  | data.maintable.type#Node  |

### Parameterized Types

```ebnf
SimpleType      ::=  SimpleType TypeArgs
TypeArgs        ::=  ‘[’ Types ‘]’
```

A _parameterized type_ $T[ T_1 , \ldots , T_n ]$ consists of a type
designator $T$ and type parameters $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$ where
$n \geq 1$. $T$ must refer to a type constructor which takes $n$ type
parameters $a_1 , \ldots , a_n$.

Say the type parameters have lower bounds $L_1 , \ldots , L_n$ and
upper bounds $U_1, \ldots, U_n$.  The parameterized type is
well-formed if each actual type parameter
_conforms to its bounds_, i.e. $\sigma L_i <: T_i <: \sigma U_i$ where $\sigma$ is the
substitution $[ a_1 := T_1 , \ldots , a_n := T_n ]$.

###### Example Parameterized Types

Given the partial type definitions:

```scala
class TreeMap[A <: Comparable[A], B] { … }
class List[A] { … }
class I extends Comparable[I] { … }

class F[M[_], X] { … }
class S[K <: String] { … }
class G[M[ Z <: I ], I] { … }
```

the following parameterized types are well formed:

```scala
TreeMap[I, String]
List[I]
List[List[Boolean]]

F[List, Int]
G[S, String]
```

###### Example

Given the [above type definitions](#example-parameterized-types),
the following types are ill-formed:

```scala
TreeMap[I]            // illegal: wrong number of parameters
TreeMap[List[I], Int] // illegal: type parameter not within bound

F[Int, Boolean]       // illegal: Int is not a type constructor
F[TreeMap, Int]       // illegal: TreeMap takes two parameters,
                      //   F expects a constructor taking one
G[S, Int]             // illegal: S constrains its parameter to
                      //   conform to String,
                      // G expects type constructor with a parameter
                      //   that conforms to Int
```

### Tuple Types

```ebnf
SimpleType    ::=   ‘(’ Types ‘)’
```

A _tuple type_ $(T_1 , \ldots , T_n)$ is an alias for the
class `scala.Tuple$n$[$T_1$, … , $T_n$]`, where $n \geq 2$.

Tuple classes are case classes whose fields can be accessed using
selectors `_1` , … , `_n`. Their functionality is
abstracted in a corresponding `Product` trait. The _n_-ary tuple
class and product trait are defined at least as follows in the
standard Scala library (they might also add other methods and
implement other traits).

```scala
case class Tuple$n$[+$T_1$, … , +$T_n$](_1: $T_1$, … , _n: $T_n$)
extends Product_n[$T_1$, … , $T_n$]

trait Product_n[+$T_1$, … , +$T_n$] {
  override def productArity = $n$
  def _1: $T_1$
  …
  def _n: $T_n$
}
```

### Annotated Types

```ebnf
AnnotType  ::=  SimpleType {Annotation}
```

An _annotated type_ $T$ $a_1, \ldots, a_n$
attaches [annotations](11-annotations.html#user-defined-annotations)
$a_1 , \ldots , a_n$ to the type $T$.

###### Example

The following type adds the `@suspendable` annotation to the type `String`:

```scala
String @suspendable
```

### Compound Types

```ebnf
CompoundType    ::=  AnnotType {‘with’ AnnotType} [Refinement]
                  |  Refinement
Refinement      ::=  [nl] ‘{’ RefineStat {semi RefineStat} ‘}’
RefineStat      ::=  Dcl
                  |  ‘type’ TypeDef
                  |
```

A _compound type_ $T_1$ `with` … `with` $T_n \\{ R \\}$
represents objects with members as given in the component types
$T_1 , \ldots , T_n$ and the refinement $\\{ R \\}$. A refinement
$\\{ R \\}$ contains declarations and type definitions.
If a declaration or definition overrides a declaration or definition in
one of the component types $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$, the usual rules for
[overriding](05-classes-and-objects.html#overriding) apply; otherwise the declaration
or definition is said to be “structural” [^2].

[^2]: A reference to a structurally defined member (method call or access
      to a value or variable) may generate binary code that is significantly
      slower than an equivalent code to a non-structural member.

Within a method declaration in a structural refinement, the type of
any value parameter may only refer to type parameters or abstract
types that are contained inside the refinement. That is, it must refer
either to a type parameter of the method itself, or to a type
definition within the refinement. This restriction does not apply to
the method's result type.

If no refinement is given, the empty refinement is implicitly added,
i.e. $T_1$ `with` … `with` $T_n$ is a shorthand for $T_1$ `with` … `with` $T_n \\{\\}$.

A compound type may also consist of just a refinement
$\\{ R \\}$ with no preceding component types. Such a type is
equivalent to `AnyRef` $\\{ R \\}$.

###### Example

The following example shows how to declare and use a method which
a parameter type that contains a refinement with structural declarations.

```scala
case class Bird (val name: String) extends Object {
        def fly(height: Int) = …
…
}
case class Plane (val callsign: String) extends Object {
        def fly(height: Int) = …
…
}
def takeoff(
            runway: Int,
      r: { val callsign: String; def fly(height: Int) }) = {
  tower.print(r.callsign + " requests take-off on runway " + runway)
  tower.read(r.callsign + " is clear for take-off")
  r.fly(1000)
}
val bird = new Bird("Polly the parrot"){ val callsign = name }
val a380 = new Plane("TZ-987")
takeoff(42, bird)
takeoff(89, a380)
```

Although `Bird` and `Plane` do not share any parent class other than
`Object`, the parameter _r_ of method `takeoff` is defined using a
refinement with structural declarations to accept any object that declares
a value `callsign` and a `fly` method.

### Infix Types

```ebnf
InfixType     ::=  CompoundType {id [nl] CompoundType}
```

An _infix type_ $T_1$ `op` $T_2$ consists of an infix
operator `op` which gets applied to two type operands $T_1$ and
$T_2$.  The type is equivalent to the type application
`op`$[T_1, T_2]$.  The infix operator `op` may be an
arbitrary identifier.

All type infix operators have the same precedence; parentheses have to
be used for grouping. The [associativity](06-expressions.html#prefix,-infix,-and-postfix-operations)
of a type operator is determined as for term operators: type operators
ending in a colon ‘:’ are right-associative; all other
operators are left-associative.

In a sequence of consecutive type infix operations
$t_0 \, \mathit{op} \, t_1 \, \mathit{op_2} \, \ldots \, \mathit{op_n} \, t_n$,
all operators $\mathit{op}\_1 , \ldots , \mathit{op}\_n$ must have the same
associativity. If they are all left-associative, the sequence is
interpreted as
$(\ldots (t_0 \mathit{op_1} t_1) \mathit{op_2} \ldots) \mathit{op_n} t_n$,
otherwise it is interpreted as
$t_0 \mathit{op_1} (t_1 \mathit{op_2} ( \ldots \mathit{op_n} t_n) \ldots)$.

### Function Types

```ebnf
Type              ::=  FunctionArgs ‘=>’ Type
FunctionArgs      ::=  InfixType
                    |  ‘(’ [ ParamType {‘,’ ParamType } ] ‘)’
```

The type $(T_1 , \ldots , T_n) \Rightarrow U$ represents the set of function
values that take arguments of types $T1 , \ldots , Tn$ and yield
results of type $U$.  In the case of exactly one argument type
$T \Rightarrow U$ is a shorthand for $(T) \Rightarrow U$.
An argument type of the form $\Rightarrow T$
represents a [call-by-name parameter](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#by-name-parameters) of type $T$.

Function types associate to the right, e.g.
$S \Rightarrow T \Rightarrow U$ is the same as
$S \Rightarrow (T \Rightarrow U)$.

Function types are shorthands for class types that define `apply`
functions.  Specifically, the $n$-ary function type
$(T_1 , \ldots , T_n) \Rightarrow U$ is a shorthand for the class type
`Function$_n$[T1 , … , $T_n$, U]`. Such class
types are defined in the Scala library for $n$ between 0 and 9 as follows.

```scala
package scala
trait Function_n[-T1 , … , -T$_n$, +R] {
  def apply(x1: T1 , … , x$_n$: T$_n$): R
  override def toString = "<function>"
}
```

Hence, function types are [covariant](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#variance-annotations) in their
result type and contravariant in their argument types.

### Existential Types

```ebnf
Type               ::= InfixType ExistentialClauses
ExistentialClauses ::= ‘forSome’ ‘{’ ExistentialDcl
                       {semi ExistentialDcl} ‘}’
ExistentialDcl     ::= ‘type’ TypeDcl
                    |  ‘val’ ValDcl
```

An _existential type_ has the form `$T$ forSome { $Q$ }`
where $Q$ is a sequence of
[type declarations](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#type-declarations-and-type-aliases).

Let
$t_1[\mathit{tps}\_1] >: L_1 <: U_1 , \ldots , t_n[\mathit{tps}\_n] >: L_n <: U_n$
be the types declared in $Q$ (any of the
type parameter sections `[ $\mathit{tps}_i$ ]` might be missing).
The scope of each type $t_i$ includes the type $T$ and the existential clause
$Q$.
The type variables $t_i$ are said to be _bound_ in the type
`$T$ forSome { $Q$ }`.
Type variables which occur in a type $T$ but which are not bound in $T$ are said
to be _free_ in $T$.

A _type instance_ of `$T$ forSome { $Q$ }`
is a type $\sigma T$ where $\sigma$ is a substitution over $t_1 , \ldots , t_n$
such that, for each $i$, $\sigma L_i <: \sigma t_i <: \sigma U_i$.
The set of values denoted by the existential type `$T$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}`
is the union of the set of values of all its type instances.

A _skolemization_ of `$T$ forSome { $Q$ }` is
a type instance $\sigma T$, where $\sigma$ is the substitution
$[t_1'/t_1 , \ldots , t_n'/t_n]$ and each $t_i'$ is a fresh abstract type
with lower bound $\sigma L_i$ and upper bound $\sigma U_i$.

#### Simplification Rules

Existential types obey the following four equivalences:

1. Multiple for-clauses in an existential type can be merged. E.g.,
`$T$ forSome { $Q$ } forSome { $Q'$ }`
is equivalent to
`$T$ forSome { $Q$ ; $Q'$}`.
1. Unused quantifications can be dropped. E.g.,
`$T$ forSome { $Q$ ; $Q'$}`
where none of the types defined in $Q'$ are referred to by $T$ or $Q$,
is equivalent to
`$T$ forSome {$ Q $}`.
1. An empty quantification can be dropped. E.g.,
`$T$ forSome { }` is equivalent to $T$.
1. An existential type `$T$ forSome { $Q$ }` where $Q$ contains
a clause `type $t[\mathit{tps}] >: L <: U$` is equivalent
to the type `$T'$ forSome { $Q$ }` where $T'$ results from $T$ by replacing
every [covariant occurrence](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#variance-annotations) of $t$ in $T$ by $U$ and by
replacing every contravariant occurrence of $t$ in $T$ by $L$.

#### Existential Quantification over Values

As a syntactic convenience, the bindings clause
in an existential type may also contain
value declarations `val $x$: $T$`.
An existential type `$T$ forSome { $Q$; val $x$: $S\,$;$\,Q'$ }`
is treated as a shorthand for the type
`$T'$ forSome { $Q$; type $t$ <: $S$ with Singleton; $Q'$ }`, where $t$ is a
fresh type name and $T'$ results from $T$ by replacing every occurrence of
`$x$.type` with $t$.

#### Placeholder Syntax for Existential Types

```ebnf
WildcardType   ::=  ‘_’ TypeBounds
```

Scala supports a placeholder syntax for existential types.
A _wildcard type_ is of the form `_$\;$>:$\,L\,$<:$\,U$`. Both bound
clauses may be omitted. If a lower bound clause `>:$\,L$` is missing,
`>:$\,$scala.Nothing`
is assumed. If an upper bound clause `<:$\,U$` is missing,
`<:$\,$scala.Any` is assumed. A wildcard type is a shorthand for an
existentially quantified type variable, where the existential quantification is
implicit.

A wildcard type must appear as type argument of a parameterized type.
Let $T = p.c[\mathit{targs},T,\mathit{targs}']$ be a parameterized type where
$\mathit{targs}, \mathit{targs}'$ may be empty and
$T$ is a wildcard type `_$\;$>:$\,L\,$<:$\,U$`. Then $T$ is equivalent to the
existential
type

```scala
$p.c[\mathit{targs},t,\mathit{targs}']$ forSome { type $t$ >: $L$ <: $U$ }
```

where $t$ is some fresh type variable.
Wildcard types may also appear as parts of [infix types](#infix-types)
, [function types](#function-types),
or [tuple types](#tuple-types).
Their expansion is then the expansion in the equivalent parameterized
type.

###### Example

Assume the class definitions

```scala
class Ref[T]
abstract class Outer { type T }
```

Here are some examples of existential types:

```scala
Ref[T] forSome { type T <: java.lang.Number }
Ref[x.T] forSome { val x: Outer }
Ref[x_type # T] forSome { type x_type <: Outer with Singleton }
```

The last two types in this list are equivalent.
An alternative formulation of the first type above using wildcard syntax is:

```scala
Ref[_ <: java.lang.Number]
```

###### Example

The type `List[List[_]]` is equivalent to the existential type

```scala
List[List[t] forSome { type t }]
```

###### Example

Assume a covariant type

```scala
class List[+T]
```

The type

```scala
List[T] forSome { type T <: java.lang.Number }
```

is equivalent (by simplification rule 4 above) to

```scala
List[java.lang.Number] forSome { type T <: java.lang.Number }
```

which is in turn equivalent (by simplification rules 2 and 3 above) to
`List[java.lang.Number]`.

## Non-Value Types

The types explained in the following do not denote sets of values, nor
do they appear explicitly in programs. They are introduced in this
report as the internal types of defined identifiers.

### Method Types

A _method type_ is denoted internally as $(\mathit{Ps})U$, where $(\mathit{Ps})$
is a sequence of parameter names and types $(p_1:T_1 , \ldots , p_n:T_n)$
for some $n \geq 0$ and $U$ is a (value or method) type.  This type
represents named methods that take arguments named $p_1 , \ldots , p_n$
of types $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$
and that return a result of type $U$.

Method types associate to the right: $(\mathit{Ps}\_1)(\mathit{Ps}\_2)U$ is
treated as $(\mathit{Ps}\_1)((\mathit{Ps}\_2)U)$.

A special case are types of methods without any parameters. They are
written here `=> T`. Parameterless methods name expressions
that are re-evaluated each time the parameterless method name is
referenced.

Method types do not exist as types of values. If a method name is used
as a value, its type is [implicitly converted](06-expressions.html#implicit-conversions) to a
corresponding function type.

###### Example

The declarations

```scala
def a: Int
def b (x: Int): Boolean
def c (x: Int) (y: String, z: String): String
```

produce the typings

```scala
a: => Int
b: (Int) Boolean
c: (Int) (String, String) String
```

### Polymorphic Method Types

A polymorphic method type is denoted internally as `[$\mathit{tps}\,$]$T$` where
`[$\mathit{tps}\,$]` is a type parameter section
`[$a_1$ >: $L_1$ <: $U_1 , \ldots , a_n$ >: $L_n$ <: $U_n$]`
for some $n \geq 0$ and $T$ is a
(value or method) type.  This type represents named methods that
take type arguments `$S_1 , \ldots , S_n$` which
[conform](#parameterized-types) to the lower bounds
`$L_1 , \ldots , L_n$` and the upper bounds
`$U_1 , \ldots , U_n$` and that yield results of type $T$.

###### Example

The declarations

```scala
def empty[A]: List[A]
def union[A <: Comparable[A]] (x: Set[A], xs: Set[A]): Set[A]
```

produce the typings

```scala
empty : [A >: Nothing <: Any] List[A]
union : [A >: Nothing <: Comparable[A]] (x: Set[A], xs: Set[A]) Set[A]
```

### Type Constructors

A _type constructor_ is represented internally much like a polymorphic method type.
`[$\pm$ $a_1$ >: $L_1$ <: $U_1 , \ldots , \pm a_n$ >: $L_n$ <: $U_n$] $T$`
represents a type that is expected by a
[type constructor parameter](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#type-parameters) or an
[abstract type constructor binding](04-basic-declarations-and-definitions.html#type-declarations-and-type-aliases) with
the corresponding type parameter clause.

###### Example

Consider this fragment of the `Iterable[+X]` class:

```scala
trait Iterable[+X] {
  def flatMap[newType[+X] <: Iterable[X], S](f: X => newType[S]): newType[S]
}
```

Conceptually, the type constructor `Iterable` is a name for the
anonymous type `[+X] Iterable[X]`, which may be passed to the
`newType` type constructor parameter in `flatMap`.

<!-- ### Overloaded Types

More than one values or methods are defined in the same scope with the
same name, we model

An overloaded type consisting of type alternatives $T_1 \commadots T_n (n \geq 2)$ is denoted internally $T_1 \overload \ldots \overload T_n$.

###### Example
```scala
def println: Unit
def println(s: String): Unit = $\ldots$
def println(x: Float): Unit = $\ldots$
def println(x: Float, width: Int): Unit = $\ldots$
def println[A](x: A)(tostring: A => String): Unit = $\ldots$
```
define a single function `println` which has an overloaded
type.
```
println:  => Unit $\overload$
          (String) Unit $\overload$
          (Float) Unit $\overload$
          (Float, Int) Unit $\overload$
          [A] (A) (A => String) Unit
```

###### Example
```scala
def f(x: T): T = $\ldots$
val f = 0
```
define a function `f} which has type `(x: T)T $\overload$ Int`.
-->

## Base Types and Member Definitions

Types of class members depend on the way the members are referenced.
Central here are three notions, namely:
1. the notion of the set of base types of a type $T$,
1. the notion of a type $T$ in some class $C$ seen from some
   prefix type $S$,
1. the notion of the set of member bindings of some type $T$.

These notions are defined mutually recursively as follows.

1. The set of _base types_ of a type is a set of class types,
   given as follows.
  - The base types of a class type $C$ with parents $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$ are
    $C$ itself, as well as the base types of the compound type
    `$T_1$ with … with $T_n$ { $R$ }`.
  - The base types of an aliased type are the base types of its alias.
  - The base types of an abstract type are the base types of its upper bound.
  - The base types of a parameterized type
    `$C$[$T_1 , \ldots , T_n$]` are the base types
    of type $C$, where every occurrence of a type parameter $a_i$
    of $C$ has been replaced by the corresponding parameter type $T_i$.
  - The base types of a singleton type `$p$.type` are the base types of
    the type of $p$.
  - The base types of a compound type
    `$T_1$ with $\ldots$ with $T_n$ { $R$ }`
    are the _reduced union_ of the base
    classes of all $T_i$'s. This means:
    Let the multi-set $\mathscr{S}$ be the multi-set-union of the
    base types of all $T_i$'s.
    If $\mathscr{S}$ contains several type instances of the same class, say
    `$S^i$#$C$[$T^i_1 , \ldots , T^i_n$]` $(i \in I)$, then
    all those instances
    are replaced by one of them which conforms to all
    others. It is an error if no such instance exists. It follows that the
    reduced union, if it exists,
    produces a set of class types, where different types are instances of
    different classes.
  - The base types of a type selection `$S$#$T$` are
    determined as follows. If $T$ is an alias or abstract type, the
    previous clauses apply. Otherwise, $T$ must be a (possibly
    parameterized) class type, which is defined in some class $B$.  Then
    the base types of `$S$#$T$` are the base types of $T$
    in $B$ seen from the prefix type $S$.
  - The base types of an existential type `$T$ forSome { $Q$ }` are
    all types `$S$ forSome { $Q$ }` where $S$ is a base type of $T$.

1. The notion of a type $T$ _in class $C$ seen from some prefix type $S$_
   makes sense only if the prefix type $S$
   has a type instance of class $C$ as a base type, say
   `$S'$#$C$[$T_1 , \ldots , T_n$]`. Then we define as follows.
    - If `$S$ = $\epsilon$.type`, then $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is
      $T$ itself.
    - Otherwise, if $S$ is an existential type `$S'$ forSome { $Q$ }`, and
      $T$ in $C$ seen from $S'$ is $T'$,
      then $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is `$T'$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}`.
    - Otherwise, if $T$ is the $i$'th type parameter of some class $D$, then
        - If $S$ has a base type `$D$[$U_1 , \ldots , U_n$]`, for some type
          parameters `[$U_1 , \ldots , U_n$]`, then $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$
          is $U_i$.
        - Otherwise, if $C$ is defined in a class $C'$, then
          $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is the same as $T$ in $C'$ seen from $S'$.
        - Otherwise, if $C$ is not defined in another class, then
          $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is $T$ itself.
    - Otherwise, if $T$ is the singleton type `$D$.this.type` for some class $D$
      then
        - If $D$ is a subclass of $C$ and $S$ has a type instance of class $D$
          among its base types, then $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is $S$.
        - Otherwise, if $C$ is defined in a class $C'$, then
          $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is the same as $T$ in $C'$ seen from $S'$.
        - Otherwise, if $C$ is not defined in another class, then
          $T$ in $C$ seen from $S$ is $T$ itself.
    - If $T$ is some other type, then the described mapping is performed
      to all its type components.

    If $T$ is a possibly parameterized class type, where $T$'s class
    is defined in some other class $D$, and $S$ is some prefix type,
    then we use "$T$ seen from $S$" as a shorthand for
    "$T$ in $D$ seen from $S$".

1. The _member bindings_ of a type $T$ are
   1. all bindings $d$ such that there exists a type instance of some class $C$ among the base types of $T$
     and there exists a definition or declaration $d'$ in $C$
     such that $d$ results from $d'$ by replacing every
     type $T'$ in $d'$ by $T'$ in $C$ seen from $T$, and
   2. all bindings of the type's [refinement](#compound-types), if it has one.

   The _definition_ of a type projection `S#T` is the member
   binding $d_T$ of the type `T` in `S`. In that case, we also say
   that `S#T` _is defined by_ $d_T$.

## Relations between types

We define the following relations between types.

| Name             | Symbolically   | Interpretation                                     |
|------------------|----------------|----------------------------------------------------|
| Equivalence      | $T \equiv U$   | $T$ and $U$ are interchangeable in all contexts.   |
| Conformance      | $T <: U$       | Type $T$ conforms to ("is a subtype of") type $U$. |
| Weak Conformance | $T <:_w U$     | Augments conformance for primitive numeric types.  |
| Compatibility    |                | Type $T$ conforms to type $U$ after conversions.   |

### Equivalence

Equivalence $(\equiv)$ between types is the smallest congruence [^congruence] such that the following holds:

- If $t$ is defined by a type alias `type $t$ = $T$`, then $t$ is equivalent to $T$.
- If a path $p$ has a singleton type `$q$.type`, then `$p$.type $\equiv q$.type`.
- If $O$ is defined by an object definition, and $p$ is a path consisting only of package or object selectors and ending in $O$, then `$O$.this.type $\equiv p$.type`.
- Two [compound types](#compound-types) are equivalent if the sequences
  of their component are pairwise equivalent, and occur in the same order, and
  their refinements are equivalent. Two refinements are equivalent if they
  bind the same names and the modifiers, types and bounds of every
  declared entity are equivalent in both refinements.
- Two [method types](#method-types) are equivalent if:
    - neither are implicit, or they both are [^implicit];
    - they have equivalent result types;
    - they have the same number of parameters; and
    - corresponding parameters have equivalent types.
      Note that the names of parameters do not matter for method type equivalence.
- Two [polymorphic method types](#polymorphic-method-types) are equivalent if
  they have the same number of type parameters, and, after renaming one set of
  type parameters by another, the result types as well as lower and upper bounds
  of corresponding type parameters are equivalent.
- Two [existential types](#existential-types)
  are equivalent if they have the same number of
  quantifiers, and, after renaming one list of type quantifiers by
  another, the quantified types as well as lower and upper bounds of
  corresponding quantifiers are equivalent.
- Two [type constructors](#type-constructors) are equivalent if they have the
  same number of type parameters, and, after renaming one list of type
  parameters by another, the result types as well as variances, lower and upper
  bounds of corresponding type parameters are equivalent.

[^congruence]: A congruence is an equivalence relation which is closed under formation of contexts.
[^implicit]: A method type is implicit if the parameter section that defines it starts with the `implicit` keyword.

### Conformance

The conformance relation $(<:)$ is the smallest transitive relation that satisfies the following conditions.

- Conformance includes equivalence. If $T \equiv U$ then $T <: U$.
- For every value type $T$, `scala.Nothing <: $T$ <: scala.Any`.
- For every type constructor $T$ (with any number of type parameters), `scala.Nothing <: $T$ <: scala.Any`.
- For every class type $T$ such that `$T$ <: scala.AnyRef` one has `scala.Null <: $T$`.
- A type variable or abstract type $t$ conforms to its upper bound and
  its lower bound conforms to $t$.
- A class type or parameterized type conforms to any of its base-types.
- A singleton type `$p$.type` conforms to the type of the path $p$.
- A singleton type `$p$.type` conforms to the type `scala.Singleton`.
- A type projection `$T$#$t$` conforms to `$U$#$t$` if $T$ conforms to $U$.
- A parameterized type `$T$[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$]` conforms to
  `$T$[$U_1$ , … , $U_n$]` if
  the following three conditions hold for $i \in \{ 1 , \ldots , n \}$:
 1. If the $i$'th type parameter of $T$ is declared covariant, then
       $T_i <: U_i$.
 1. If the $i$'th type parameter of $T$ is declared contravariant, then
       $U_i <: T_i$.
 1. If the $i$'th type parameter of $T$ is declared neither covariant
       nor contravariant, then $U_i \equiv T_i$.
- A compound type `$T_1$ with $\ldots$ with $T_n$ {$R\,$}` conforms to
  each of its component types $T_i$.
- If $T <: U_i$ for $i \in \{ 1 , \ldots , n \}$ and for every
  binding $d$ of a type or value $x$ in $R$ there exists a member
  binding of $x$ in $T$ which subsumes $d$, then $T$ conforms to the
  compound type `$U_1$ with $\ldots$ with $U_n$ {$R\,$}`.
- The existential type `$T$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}` conforms to
  $U$ if its [skolemization](#existential-types)
  conforms to $U$.
- The type $T$ conforms to the existential type `$U$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}`
  if $T$ conforms to one of the [type instances](#existential-types)
  of `$U$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}`.
- If
  $T_i \equiv T_i'$ for $i \in \{ 1 , \ldots , n\}$ and $U$ conforms to $U'$
  then the method type $(p_1:T_1 , \ldots , p_n:T_n) U$ conforms to
  $(p_1':T_1' , \ldots , p_n':T_n') U'$.
- The polymorphic type
  $[a_1 >: L_1 <: U_1 , \ldots , a_n >: L_n <: U_n] T$ conforms to the
  polymorphic type
  $[a_1 >: L_1' <: U_1' , \ldots , a_n >: L_n' <: U_n'] T'$ if, assuming
  $L_1' <: a_1 <: U_1' , \ldots , L_n' <: a_n <: U_n'$
  one has $T <: T'$ and $L_i <: L_i'$ and $U_i' <: U_i$
  for $i \in \{ 1 , \ldots , n \}$.
- Type constructors $T$ and $T'$ follow a similar discipline. We characterize
  $T$ and $T'$ by their type parameter clauses
  $[a_1 , \ldots , a_n]$ and
  $[a_1' , \ldots , a_n']$, where an $a_i$ or $a_i'$ may include a variance
  annotation, a higher-order type parameter clause, and bounds. Then, $T$
  conforms to $T'$ if any list $[t_1 , \ldots , t_n]$ -- with declared
  variances, bounds and higher-order type parameter clauses -- of valid type
  arguments for $T'$ is also a valid list of type arguments for $T$ and
  $T[t_1 , \ldots , t_n] <: T'[t_1 , \ldots , t_n]$. Note that this entails
  that:
    - The bounds on $a_i$ must be weaker than the corresponding bounds declared
      for $a'_i$.
    - The variance of $a_i$ must match the variance of $a'_i$, where covariance
      matches covariance, contravariance matches contravariance and any variance
      matches invariance.
    - Recursively, these restrictions apply to the corresponding higher-order
      type parameter clauses of $a_i$ and $a'_i$.

A declaration or definition in some compound type of class type $C$
_subsumes_ another declaration of the same name in some compound type or class
type $C'$, if one of the following holds.

- A value declaration or definition that defines a name $x$ with type $T$
  subsumes a value or method declaration that defines $x$ with type $T'$, provided
  $T <: T'$.
- A method declaration or definition that defines a name $x$ with type $T$
  subsumes a method declaration that defines $x$ with type $T'$, provided
  $T <: T'$.
- A type alias
  `type $t$[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$] = $T$` subsumes a type alias
  `type $t$[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$] = $T'$` if $T \equiv T'$.
- A type declaration `type $t$[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$] >: $L$ <: $U$` subsumes
  a type declaration `type $t$[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$] >: $L'$ <: $U'$` if
  $L' <: L$ and $U <: U'$.
- A type or class definition that binds a type name $t$ subsumes an abstract
  type declaration `type t[$T_1$ , … , $T_n$] >: L <: U` if
  $L <: t <: U$.


#### Least upper bounds and greatest lower bounds
The $(<:)$ relation forms pre-order between types, i.e. it is transitive and reflexive.
This allows us to define _least upper bounds_ and _greatest lower bounds_ of a set of types in terms of that order.
The least upper bound or greatest lower bound of a set of types does not always exist.
For instance, consider the class definitions:

```scala
class A[+T] {}
class B extends A[B]
class C extends A[C]
```

Then the types `A[Any], A[A[Any]], A[A[A[Any]]], ...` form
a descending sequence of upper bounds for `B` and `C`. The
least upper bound would be the infinite limit of that sequence, which
does not exist as a Scala type. Since cases like this are in general
impossible to detect, a Scala compiler is free to reject a term
which has a type specified as a least upper or greatest lower bound,
and that bound would be more complex than some compiler-set
limit [^4].

The least upper bound or greatest lower bound might also not be
unique. For instance `A with B` and `B with A` are both
greatest lower bounds of `A` and `B`. If there are several
least upper bounds or greatest lower bounds, the Scala compiler is
free to pick any one of them.

[^4]: The current Scala compiler limits the nesting level
      of parameterization in such bounds to be at most two deeper than the
      maximum nesting level of the operand types

### Weak Conformance

In some situations Scala uses a more general conformance relation.
A type $S$ _weakly conforms_ to a type $T$, written $S <:_w T$,
if $S <: T$ or both $S$ and $T$ are primitive number types and $S$ precedes $T$ in the following ordering.

```scala
Byte  $<:_w$ Short
Short $<:_w$ Int
Char  $<:_w$ Int
Int   $<:_w$ Long
Long  $<:_w$ Float
Float $<:_w$ Double
```

A _weak least upper bound_ is a least upper bound with respect to weak conformance.

### Compatibility
A type $T$ is _compatible_ to a type $U$ if $T$ (or its corresponding function type) [weakly conforms](#weak-conformance) to $U$
after applying [eta-expansion](06-expressions.html#eta-expansion). If $T$ is a method type, it's converted to the corresponding function type. If the types do not weakly conform, the following alternatives are checked in order:
  - [view application](07-implicits.html#views): there's an implicit view from $T$ to $U$;
  - dropping by-name modifiers: if $U$ is of the shape `$=> U'$` (and $T$ is not), `$T <:_w U'$`;
  - SAM conversion: if $T$ corresponds to a function type, and $U$ declares a single abstract method whose type [corresponds](06-expressions.html#sam-conversion) to the function type $U'$, `$T <:_w U'$`.

<!--- TODO: include other implicit conversions in addition to view application?

  trait Proc { def go(x: Any): Unit }

  def foo(x: Any => Unit): Unit = ???
  def foo(x: Proc): Unit = ???

  foo((x: Any) => 1) // works when you drop either foo overload since value discarding is applied

-->

#### Examples

##### Function compatibility via SAM conversion

Given the definitions

```scala
def foo(x: Int => String): Unit
def foo(x: ToString): Unit

trait ToString { def convert(x: Int): String }
```

The application `foo((x: Int) => x.toString)` [resolves](06-expressions.html#overloading-resolution) to the first overload,
as it's more specific:
  - `Int => String` is compatible to `ToString` -- when expecting a value of type `ToString`, you may pass a function literal from `Int` to `String`, as it will be SAM-converted to said function;
  - `ToString` is not compatible to `Int => String` -- when expecting a function from `Int` to `String`, you may not pass a `ToString`.

## Volatile Types

Type volatility approximates the possibility that a type parameter or
abstract type instance of a type does not have any non-null values.
A value member of a volatile type cannot appear in a [path](#paths).

A type is _volatile_ if it falls into one of four categories:

A compound type `$T_1$ with … with $T_n$ {$R\,$}`
is volatile if one of the following two conditions hold.

1. One of $T_2 , \ldots , T_n$ is a type parameter or abstract type, or
1. $T_1$ is an abstract type and and either the refinement $R$
   or a type $T_j$ for $j > 1$ contributes an abstract member
   to the compound type, or
1. one of $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$ is a singleton type.

Here, a type $S$ _contributes an abstract member_ to a type $T$ if
$S$ contains an abstract member that is also a member of $T$.
A refinement $R$ contributes an abstract member to a type $T$ if $R$
contains an abstract declaration which is also a member of $T$.

A type designator is volatile if it is an alias of a volatile type, or
if it designates a type parameter or abstract type that has a volatile type as
its upper bound.

A singleton type `$p$.type` is volatile, if the underlying
type of path $p$ is volatile.

An existential type `$T$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}` is volatile if
$T$ is volatile.

## Type Erasure

A type is called _generic_ if it contains type arguments or type variables.
_Type erasure_ is a mapping from (possibly generic) types to
non-generic types. We write $|T|$ for the erasure of type $T$.
The erasure mapping is defined as follows.

- The erasure of an alias type is the erasure of its right-hand side.
- The erasure of an abstract type is the erasure of its upper bound.
- The erasure of the parameterized type `scala.Array$[T_1]$` is
 `scala.Array$[|T_1|]$`.
- The erasure of every other parameterized type $T[T_1 , \ldots , T_n]$ is $|T|$.
- The erasure of a singleton type `$p$.type` is the
  erasure of the type of $p$.
- The erasure of a type projection `$T$#$x$` is `|$T$|#$x$`.
- The erasure of a compound type
  `$T_1$ with $\ldots$ with $T_n$ {$R\,$}` is the erasure of the intersection
  dominator of $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$.
- The erasure of an existential type `$T$ forSome {$\,Q\,$}` is $|T|$.

The _intersection dominator_ of a list of types $T_1 , \ldots , T_n$ is computed
as follows.
Let $T_{i_1} , \ldots , T_{i_m}$ be the subsequence of types $T_i$
which are not supertypes of some other type $T_j$.
If this subsequence contains a type designator $T_c$ that refers to a class
which is not a trait,
the intersection dominator is $T_c$. Otherwise, the intersection
dominator is the first element of the subsequence, $T_{i_1}$.